Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty  More »

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368. As emperor, he founded his capital at Nanjing and adopted the name Hongwu as his reign title. Hongwu, literally meaning “vast military,” reflects the increased prestige of the army during the Ming Dynasty. Due to the very realistic threat still posed by the Mongols, Hongwu realized that a strong military was essential to Chinese prosperity. Thus, the orthodox Confucian view that the military was an inferior class to be ruled over by an elite class of scholars was reconsidered. During the Ming Dynasty, China proper was reunited after centuries of foreign incursion and occupation. Ming troops controlled Manchuria, and the Korean Joseon Dynasty respected the authority of the Ming rulers, at least nominally.Like the founders of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.- 220 A.D.), Hongwu was extremely suspicious of the educated courtiers that advised him and, fearful that they might attempt to overthrow him, he successfully consolidated control of all aspect of government. The strict authoritarian control Hongwu wielded over the affairs of the country was due in part to the centralized system of government he inherited from the Monguls and largely kept intact. However, Hongwu replaced the Mongul bureaucrats who had ruled the country for nearly a century with native Chinese administrators. He also reinstituted the Confucian examination system that tested would-be civic officials on their knowledge of literature and philosophy. Unlike the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), which received most of its taxes from mercantile commerce, the Ming economy was based primarily on agriculture, reflecting both the peasant roots of its founder as well as the Confucian belief that trade was ignoble and parasitic.Culturally, the greatest innovation of the Ming Dynasty was the introduction of the novel. Developed from the folk tales of traditional storytellers, these works were transcribed in the everyday vernacular language of the people. Advances in printmaking and the increasing population of urban dwellers largely contributed to the success of these books. Architecturally, the most famous monument of the Ming Dynasty is surely the complex of temples and palaces known as the Forbidden City that was constructed in Beijing after the third ruler of the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Yongle, moved the capital there. Today, the Forbidded Palace remains one of the hallmarks of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the vast nation.Glazed sculptural tile are today considered one of the hallmarks of classical Chinese architecture. However, despite their popularity in modern times, they were relatively scarce until after the then end of the T’ang Dynasty. Even then, during the Song and Yuan Dynasties, they were still infrequently used. It was not until the rise of the Ming Dynasty that glazed sculptural tiles became a popular decorative devise extensively employed in temples, altars, imperials palaces, and gardens. Beijing became the center of glazed architectural tile production during the Ming period, and colorfully decorated pagodas began to sprout up around this region. Eaves and entryways were decorated with vibrant sculptures that served both decorative and sometimes religious purposes. On temples and palaces, representations of mounted warriors and snarling dragons were meant to ward off evildoers, of both the physical and spiritual kind.This stunning sculpture of a dragon fish would have originally decorated the sloping eaves of a Ming Dynasty structure, likely along the part that overhangs the building. Dragon fish are one of the more peculiar mythological composite creatures. Gorgeously glazed in vibrant green and blue hues (blue being one of the rarer colors of glaze), this work appears more charming than intimidating, even though its presumed purpose was to frighten infiltrators. The glazes have acquired a silver frosted patina that is a testament to their age. With undulating tails and fins, open mouth, bulbous noses, and scaly body, these dragon fish delight our eyes with their exotic beauty. When we imagine the entire temple structure covered in such tiles, from the walls to the roof, the glory of Ming Dynasty China becomes apparent. - (H.1066)   « Less

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty  More »

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368. As emperor, he founded his capital at Nanjing and adopted the name Hongwu as his reign title. Hongwu, literally meaning “vast military,” reflects the increased prestige of the army during the Ming Dynasty. Due to the very realistic threat still posed by the Mongols, Hongwu realized that a strong military was essential to Chinese prosperity. Thus, the orthodox Confucian view that the military was an inferior class to be ruled over by an elite class of scholars was reconsidered. During the Ming Dynasty, China proper was reunited after centuries of foreign incursion and occupation. Ming troops controlled Manchuria, and the Korean Joseon Dynasty respected the authority of the Ming rulers, at least nominally.Like the founders of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.- 220 A.D.), Hongwu was extremely suspicious of the educated courtiers that advised him and, fearful that they might attempt to overthrow him, he successfully consolidated control of all aspect of government. The strict authoritarian control Hongwu wielded over the affairs of the country was due in part to the centralized system of government he inherited from the Monguls and largely kept intact. However, Hongwu replaced the Mongul bureaucrats who had ruled the country for nearly a century with native Chinese administrators. He also reinstituted the Confucian examination system that tested would-be civic officials on their knowledge of literature and philosophy. Unlike the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), which received most of its taxes from mercantile commerce, the Ming economy was based primarily on agriculture, reflecting both the peasant roots of its founder as well as the Confucian belief that trade was ignoble and parasitic.Culturally, the greatest innovation of the Ming Dynasty was the introduction of the novel. Developed from the folk tales of traditional storytellers, these works were transcribed in the everyday vernacular language of the people. Advances in printmaking and the increasing population of urban dwellers largely contributed to the success of these books. Architecturally, the most famous monument of the Ming Dynasty is surely the complex of temples and palaces known as the Forbidden City that was constructed in Beijing after the third ruler of the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Yongle, moved the capital there. Today, the Forbidded Palace remains one of the hallmarks of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the vast nation.Glazed sculptural tile are today considered one of the hallmarks of classical Chinese architecture. However, despite their popularity in modern times, they were relatively scarce until after the then end of the T’ang Dynasty. Even then, during the Song and Yuan Dynasties, they were still infrequently used. It was not until the rise of the Ming Dynasty that glazed sculptural tiles became a popular decorative devise extensively employed in temples, altars, imperials palaces, and gardens. Beijing became the center of glazed architectural tile production during the Ming period, and colorfully decorated pagodas began to sprout up around this region. Eaves and entryways were decorated with vibrant sculptures that served both decorative and sometimes religious purposes. On temples and palaces, representations of mounted warriors and snarling dragons were meant to ward off evildoers, of both the physical and spiritual kind.This stunning sculpture of a dragon fish would have originally decorated the sloping eaves of a Ming Dynasty structure, likely along the part that overhangs the building. Dragon fish are one of the more peculiar mythological composite creatures. Gorgeously glazed in vibrant green and blue hues (blue being one of the rarer colors of glaze), this work appears more charming than intimidating, even though its presumed purpose was to frighten infiltrators. The glazes have acquired a silver frosted patina that is a testament to their age. With undulating tails and fins, open mouth, bulbous noses, and scaly body, these dragon fish delight our eyes with their exotic beauty. When we imagine the entire temple structure covered in such tiles, from the walls to the roof, the glory of Ming Dynasty China becomes apparent. - (H.1067)   « Less

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty  More »

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368. As emperor, he founded his capital at Nanjing and adopted the name Hongwu as his reign title. Hongwu, literally meaning “vast military,” reflects the increased prestige of the army during the Ming Dynasty. Due to the very realistic threat still posed by the Mongols, Hongwu realized that a strong military was essential to Chinese prosperity. Thus, the orthodox Confucian view that the military was an inferior class to be ruled over by an elite class of scholars was reconsidered. During the Ming Dynasty, China proper was reunited after centuries of foreign incursion and occupation. Ming troops controlled Manchuria, and the Korean Joseon Dynasty respected the authority of the Ming rulers, at least nominally.Like the founders of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.- 220 A.D.), Hongwu was extremely suspicious of the educated courtiers that advised him and, fearful that they might attempt to overthrow him, he successfully consolidated control of all aspect of government. The strict authoritarian control Hongwu wielded over the affairs of the country was due in part to the centralized system of government he inherited from the Monguls and largely kept intact. However, Hongwu replaced the Mongul bureaucrats who had ruled the country for nearly a century with native Chinese administrators. He also reinstituted the Confucian examination system that tested would-be civic officials on their knowledge of literature and philosophy. Unlike the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), which received most of its taxes from mercantile commerce, the Ming economy was based primarily on agriculture, reflecting both the peasant roots of its founder as well as the Confucian belief that trade was ignoble and parasitic.Culturally, the greatest innovation of the Ming Dynasty was the introduction of the novel. Developed from the folk tales of traditional storytellers, these works were transcribed in the everyday vernacular language of the people. Advances in printmaking and the increasing population of urban dwellers largely contributed to the success of these books. Architecturally, the most famous monument of the Ming Dynasty is surely the complex of temples and palaces known as the Forbidden City that was constructed in Beijing after the third ruler of the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Yongle, moved the capital there. Today, the Forbidded Palace remains one of the hallmarks of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the vast nation.Glazed sculptural tile are today considered one of the hallmarks of classical Chinese architecture. However, despite their popularity in modern times, they were relatively scarce until after the then end of the T’ang Dynasty. Even then, during the Song and Yuan Dynasties, they were still infrequently used. It was not until the rise of the Ming Dynasty that glazed sculptural tiles became a popular decorative devise extensively employed in temples, altars, imperials palaces, and gardens. Beijing became the center of glazed architectural tile production during the Ming period, and colorfully decorated pagodas began to sprout up around this region. Eaves and entryways were decorated with vibrant sculptures that served both decorative and sometimes religious purposes. On temples and palaces, representations of mounted warriors and snarling dragons were meant to ward off evildoers, of both the physical and spiritual kind.This stunning sculpture of a dragon fish would have originally decorated the sloping eaves of a Ming Dynasty structure, likely along the part that overhangs the building. Dragon fish are one of the more peculiar mythological composite creatures. Gorgeously glazed in vibrant green and blue hues (blue being one of the rarer colors of glaze), this work appears more charming than intimidating, even though its presumed purpose was to frighten infiltrators. The glazes have acquired a silver frosted patina that is a testament to their age. With undulating tails and fins, open mouth, bulbous noses, and scaly body, these dragon fish delight our eyes with their exotic beauty. When we imagine the entire temple structure covered in such tiles, from the walls to the roof, the glory of Ming Dynasty China becomes apparent. - (H.1068)   « Less

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty  More »

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368. As emperor, he founded his capital at Nanjing and adopted the name Hongwu as his reign title. Hongwu, literally meaning “vast military,” reflects the increased prestige of the army during the Ming Dynasty. Due to the very realistic threat still posed by the Mongols, Hongwu realized that a strong military was essential to Chinese prosperity. Thus, the orthodox Confucian view that the military was an inferior class to be ruled over by an elite class of scholars was reconsidered. During the Ming Dynasty, China proper was reunited after centuries of foreign incursion and occupation. Ming troops controlled Manchuria, and the Korean Joseon Dynasty respected the authority of the Ming rulers, at least nominally.Like the founders of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.- 220 A.D.), Hongwu was extremely suspicious of the educated courtiers that advised him and, fearful that they might attempt to overthrow him, he successfully consolidated control of all aspect of government. The strict authoritarian control Hongwu wielded over the affairs of the country was due in part to the centralized system of government he inherited from the Monguls and largely kept intact. However, Hongwu replaced the Mongul bureaucrats who had ruled the country for nearly a century with native Chinese administrators. He also reinstituted the Confucian examination system that tested would-be civic officials on their knowledge of literature and philosophy. Unlike the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), which received most of its taxes from mercantile commerce, the Ming economy was based primarily on agriculture, reflecting both the peasant roots of its founder as well as the Confucian belief that trade was ignoble and parasitic.Culturally, the greatest innovation of the Ming Dynasty was the introduction of the novel. Developed from the folk tales of traditional storytellers, these works were transcribed in the everyday vernacular language of the people. Advances in printmaking and the increasing population of urban dwellers largely contributed to the success of these books. Architecturally, the most famous monument of the Ming Dynasty is surely the complex of temples and palaces known as the Forbidden City that was constructed in Beijing after the third ruler of the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Yongle, moved the capital there. Today, the Forbidded Palace remains one of the hallmarks of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the vast nation.Glazed sculptural tile are today considered one of the hallmarks of classical Chinese architecture. However, despite their popularity in modern times, they were relatively scarce until after the then end of the T’ang Dynasty. Even then, during the Song and Yuan Dynasties, they were still infrequently used. It was not until the rise of the Ming Dynasty that glazed sculptural tiles became a popular decorative devise extensively employed in temples, altars, imperials palaces, and gardens. Beijing became the center of glazed architectural tile production during the Ming period, and colorfully decorated pagodas began to sprout up around this region. Eaves and entryways were decorated with vibrant sculptures that served both decorative and sometimes religious purposes. On temples and palaces, representations of mounted warriors and snarling dragons were meant to ward off evildoers, of both the physical and spiritual kind.This stunning sculpture of a dragon fish would have originally decorated the sloping eaves of a Ming Dynasty structure, likely along the part that overhangs the building. Dragon fish are one of the more peculiar mythological composite creatures. Gorgeously glazed in vibrant green and blue hues (blue being one of the rarer colors of glaze), this work appears more charming than intimidating, even though its presumed purpose was to frighten infiltrators. The glazes have acquired a silver frosted patina that is a testament to their age. With undulating tails and fins, open mouth, bulbous noses, and scaly body, these dragon fish delight our eyes with their exotic beauty. When we imagine the entire temple structure covered in such tiles, from the walls to the roof, the glory of Ming Dynasty China becomes apparent. - (H.1069)   « Less

The T’ang Dynasty was a golden age of Chinese culture. The arts reached new levels of sophistication. Poetry and literature flourished under the enlightened rulership.  More »

The T’ang Dynasty was a golden age of Chinese culture. The arts reached new levels of sophistication. Poetry and literature flourished under the enlightened rulership. The Silk Road brought fortunes into China on the backs of camels, carrying exotic luxury items from distant lands. Foreign merchants from across Central Asia and the Middle East settled in the urban centers of the T’ang China, foremost among them the thriving capital of Chang’an (modern X’ian), a bustling cosmopolitan center of over two million inhabitants. The T’ang Dynasty was a relatively stable period of great prosperity representing one of the greatest cultural flourishings in human history.The legacy of the T’ang survives foremost in their tremendous artistic creations. This stunning terracotta vase is a testament to the artistic mastery of Chinese potters. The gently bulging body is refined in its smooth curves. Modeled after bronze examples, this vessel, covered in a delicate crème glaze, would have provided a more affordable alternative to its bronze counterparts. Although the body is unadorned, the handles take the form of stylized dragons. They bite down on the rim of the vase with their pointed mouths as if attempting to drink the precious contents of this container (most probably wine). This gorgeous vase reveals the refinement and luxury of the T’ang era, where sumptuous wines where enjoyed as much as the beautiful forms of the vessel that contained them. - (H.1070)   « Less

The overextension of the labor force during the Qin Dynasty would result in a popular uprising against the empire. In 206 B.C., Liu Bang, a Qin official, led an army composed  More »

The overextension of the labor force during the Qin Dynasty would result in a popular uprising against the empire. In 206 B.C., Liu Bang, a Qin official, led an army composed of peasants and some lower nobility to victory and established his own Dynasty in place, the Han. However, unlike the Qin, the Han would unify China and rule virtually uncontested for over four hundred years. It is during this time that much of what is now considered to be Chinese culture was first actualized. The bureaucracy started under the Qin was now firmly established. The vast lands of China were now under the firm grip of a central authority. Confucianism became the state ideology although the worship of Taoist deity remained widespread, both among the peasants and the aristocracy. Ancient histories and texts were analyzed and rewritten to be more objective while new legendary myths and cultural epics were transcribed.The Han era can also be characterized as one of the greatest artistic outpourings in Chinese history, easily on par with the glories of their Western contemporaries, Greece and Rome. Wealth pouring into China from trade along the Silk Road initiated a period of unprecedented luxury. Stunning bronze vessels were created, decorated with elegant inlaid gold and silver motifs. Jade carvings reached a new level of technical brilliance. But perhaps the artistic revival of the Han Dynasty is nowhere better represented than in their sculptures and vessels that were interred with deceased nobles. Called mingqi, literally meaning “spirit articles,” these works depicted a vast array of subject, from warriors and horses to ovens and livestock, which were buried alongside the dead for use in the next world, reflecting the Chinese belief that the afterlife was an extension of our earthy existence. Thus, quite logically, the things we require to sustain and nurture our bodies in this life would be just as necessary in our next life.This remarkable set, composed of one hundred individually modeled and painted warriors, is a type of work known as mingqi, literally translated as, “items for the next world." This army of sculpted warriors was discovered buried in the tomb of an elite member of the upper strata of Western Han society. Discovered outside of modern X’ian, the site of the ancient capital of China, Chang’an, this tomb find recalls the famous tomb of Emperor Shihuangdi. While much smaller in scale, both in regards to the number of figures and their size, this set still invokes the marvel and majesty of Ancient China. Each warrior is individually hand painted with a slightly different expression: some feature smooth faces, others have wispy moustaches. Each warrior wears a unique outfit. Some feature certain emblems that are thought to signify rank. Other warriors sport quivers on their back, suggesting that they were archers. Most of the figures have holes in their hands, implying that they once carried weapons, such as a spear or a bow, that have since disappeared. Most likely, these weapons were made out of wood and deteriorated over the centuries. Considering how damaging time and the natural elements can be to a work of art, the condition of this set is outstanding. Much of the original pigment remains intact. Beautiful red, blues, greens, and grays decorate their uniforms and provide insight into the fashions of Ancient China. This set was created specifically to be buried alongside the deceased to protect his soul throughout the afterlife. Today, this set of a hundred painted warriors is a monument to the cultural glories of Han Dynasty, one of the most impressive ages of artistic creation in the history of human civilization. - (H.1072)   « Less

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty  More »

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368. As emperor, he founded his capital at Nanjing and adopted the name Hongwu as his reign title. Hongwu, literally meaning “vast military,” reflects the increased prestige of the army during the Ming Dynasty. Due to the very realistic threat still posed by the Mongols, Hongwu realized that a strong military was essential to Chinese prosperity. Thus, the orthodox Confucian view that the military was an inferior class to be ruled over by an elite class of scholars was reconsidered. During the Ming Dynasty, China proper was reunited after centuries of foreign incursion and occupation. Ming troops controlled Manchuria, and the Korean Joseon Dynasty respected the authority of the Ming rulers, at least nominally.Like the founders of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.- 220 A.D.), Hongwu was extremely suspicious of the educated courtiers that advised him and, fearful that they might attempt to overthrow him, he successfully consolidated control of all aspect of government. The strict authoritarian control Hongwu wielded over the affairs of the country was due in part to the centralized system of government he inherited from the Monguls and largely kept intact. However, Hongwu replaced the Mongul bureaucrats who had ruled the country for nearly a century with native Chinese administrators. He also reinstituted the Confucian examination system that tested would-be civic officials on their knowledge of literature and philosophy. Unlike the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), which received most of its taxes from mercantile commerce, the Ming economy was based primarily on agriculture, reflecting both the peasant roots of its founder as well as the Confucian belief that trade was ignoble and parasitic.Culturally, the greatest innovation of the Ming Dynasty was the introduction of the novel. Developed from the folk tales of traditional storytellers, these works were transcribed in the everyday vernacular language of the people. Advances in printmaking and the increasing population of urban dwellers largely contributed to the success of these books. Architecturally, the most famous monument of the Ming Dynasty is surely the complex of temples and palaces known as the Forbidden City that was constructed in Beijing after the third ruler of the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Yongle, moved the capital there. Today, the Forbidden Palace remains one of the hallmarks of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the vast nation.Glazed sculptural tile are today considered one of the hallmarks of classical Chinese architecture. However, despite their popularity in modern times, they were relatively scarce until after the end of the T’ang Dynasty. Even then, during the Song and Yuan Dynasties, they were still infrequently used. It was not until the rise of the Ming Dynasty that glazed sculptural tiles became a popular decorative devise extensively employed in temples, altars, imperial palaces, and gardens. Beijing became the center of glazed architectural tile production during the Ming period, and colorfully decorated pagodas began to sprout up around this region. Eaves and entryways were decorated with vibrant sculptures that served both decorative and sometimes religious purposes. On temples and palaces, representations of mounted warriors and snarling dragons were meant to ward off evildoers, of both the physical and spiritual kind. Later, during the Qing Dynasty, dragons would be replaced by stone lions and Fu dogs as the main choice of guardian creatures. However, dragons continue to be revered, as they were during the Ming era, for their infinite protective qualities.This group of glazed terracotta tiles would have been one of the centerpieces in the decorative scheme of a Ming Dynasty temple. Brilliantly colored in rich green and yellow ochre hues, these tiles depict a ferocious undulating dragon against a background of flowers and foliage. With its open mouth, sharp fangs, and beady eyes, this dragon was clearly meant to frighten away any potential evildoers, be they human or otherworldly, which might try to infiltrate the building it once adorned. This group of four tiles is but one part of a larger frieze of glazed tiles that would have once decorated the interior or exterior of the temple structure. When we imagine the entire temple structure covered in such tiles, from the walls to the roof, the glory of Ming Dynasty China becomes apparent. - (X.0277)   « Less

During the Han Dynasty, sculptural effigies of domesticated animals were often interred in the tombs of nobility and elite members of the social hierarchy. Primarily  More »

During the Han Dynasty, sculptural effigies of domesticated animals were often interred in the tombs of nobility and elite members of the social hierarchy. Primarily fashioned from terracotta, these sculptures accompanied the spirit of the deceased into the afterlife. Beasts of burden and animals reared for food were both interred to provide for the needs of the deceased. This incredibly naturalistic pair of goats would originally have been arranged in a pen or enclosure with other domesticated animals. The modelling is simple but exquisite with each goat featuring a small beard, upright tail and pointed ears. Between the ears are two small holes designed to support a pair of horns probably fashioned from a perishable material such as wood. The eye-sockets are raised and the nostrils are formed from two curved indentations. The surface has been painted with a brown pigment with slightly darker areas around the hooves. The head of the one of the pair is tilted slightly to the viewer’s left. Today, we are drawn to these sculptures as beautiful works of art. However, they also reflect the religious and philosophical beliefs of the ancient Chinese and are therefore of tremendous cultural and historical significance. - (X.0413)   « Less

Iron is a material that does not figure prominently in Chinese art, although it has always been considered a symbol of strength, determination and integrity and justice and  More »

Iron is a material that does not figure prominently in Chinese art, although it has always been considered a symbol of strength, determination and integrity and justice and widely used in military and agriculture. Iron was known and utilised since the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE in China, although the technique of casting was not mastered until the 5th century BCE. It was only later on, with the invention of double cylinders bellows furnaces by the 4th c. BCE, that the technique advanced and iron tools replaced stone, bone and wooden ones in agriculture. But cast iron continued to be a brittle alloy of iron with a carbon content ranging from 1.5 to 5 per cent. Its melting point stood at about 1150 degrees centigrades which means that it could not be forged but only cast directly into the desired form. Yet its special qualities were hardness and resistence to corrosion. Later on, during the Six Dynasties period, a sizeable number of cast-iron Buddhist images began to be produced. By the Tang and Song periods, large sized statues and bells were cast and placed mainly outdoors. The Jiu Tangshu (Old History of the Tang Dynasty) and the Xin Tangshu (New History of the Tang) both recorded the endeavour of Empress Wu Zetian, whose large metallurgical projects have not survived to this day, nevertheless attest the level of effort and time expenditure placed in the creation of iron structures. The recumbent ox here illustrated is covered with a thin brown patina and the surface is rather coarse, with some cracks and small holes caused mainly by cold shuts. Prominent casting seams are evenly distributed over the whole body. In between the horizontal seams are vertical seams and they all would have originally been covered up with gesso and then painted or lacquered. The rectangular partitions outlined by the seams suggest that the outer clay mould of this iron ox was made out of rectangular tassels. The whole process of creation would have taken quite some time: first a model of the ox with all his details was made of clay over an armature of wood or metal. Once the model dried, another layer of clay was applied to make the outer mould. This outer mould was then cut up in sections with tenons and mortises, numbered and subsequently dried. Iron nails were driven then into the clay model and used as measure, while the model was trimmed down to create the desired space between the outer and inner mould. When the mould sections were reassembled for the casting process, these nails would have also functioned as spacers to hold the outer mould at an equal distance from the core. Due to the complexity of shape to be cast and the amount of melted iron to be used, the casting was done in several steps. First the outer mould was assembled from the legs to the belly; earth was then piled against it and wooden braces installed to stabilise the outer mould and maintain the temperature of the molten iron. Subsequently the mould sections were assembled and the statue cast layer by layer. Throughout the interior and exterior of the ox there are traces of cold shuts formed by molten iron poured by this open-casting method. When the time between two subsequent castings became too long, the molten iron started to solidify before the next pouring, hence causing cold shuts to appear. This was the casting method utilised throughout the Song period for the production of various outdoor statues, the few extant examples being mostly connected with temple architectures in Henan and Shanxi provinces. The iron oxen found at the site of Pujin bridge near Puzhou city, in Yongji county, Shanxi province, seemed to have served a different purpose, as they were used at the four sides of a bridge to secure the iron chains of the bridge. However, such figures were indeed cast in solid iron, to support the stress, while our ox was cast hollow. Traditionally, Chinese believed that a statue contained the power to influence its surroundings, and by making a statue, one would be able to bring into existence not only the actual powers of the subject but also its symbolic powers. Faithful to this ideology, since earliest times, oxen were associated with water and came to symbolise water control. An ox (Chin. niu) was the most powerful beast at man's disposal; its strength was invaluable in maintaining clear the water canals system for irrigating and thus preventing floodings. According to the legend, after the Great Yu controlled the waters, he set up an iron ox to tranquilize the waters and repel evil spirits. But these powers were enjoyed not only by oxen, but by all forms of niu – oxen, buffalo (Chin. shui niu) and rhinoceros (Chin. xi niu). Belief in the powers of these so-called “control-the-waters- oxen” (Chin. zhi shui niu) was strengthened by reference to the ancient Five Elements theory. Originally developed in the 4th-3rd c. BCE and refined during the Han period (206 BC-220 CE), this theory explained natural phenomena by the cyclical and mutual interaction of five natural elements. Within this theory, in the Mutual Production Order, metal produced and thus controlled water. This belief in the mutual interaction of water and iron encouraged the production of iron statues for controlling water. Hence statues of oxen were placed on the banks of lakes and rivers to prevent floodings, or, as possibly in the case of our ox, on a pedestal in front of a Daoist temple associated with water deities. This tradition persisted throughout the centuries. A typical example is the hollow ox at Shanhua temple in Datong, Shanxi province. The inscription gives details of casting date and manufacturer, yet in the local histories it is referred to as one of the seven 'zhi shui niu' originally placed on the west bank of the Yu river. Our outstanding iron ox stands now placidly recumbent with his tail bent on the right hindquarter, a long -now scrubbed off- inscription on one side, the horns projecting straight from a highly ornate head, reminding us of his past aura, his imposing figure imbued with great somberness, his supernatural symbolism still lingering all around us, searching for waters to placate. For comparable examples see: Fan Wangli and Li Maolin, “Tang tie niu yu Pujin qiao”, Kaogu yu Wenwu 1991.1: 52-55. Paludan, Ann, “ The Tang Dynasty Iron Oxen at Pujin Bridge”, Orientations 1994.5: 61-68. Barry Till and Paula Swart, “Cast Iron Statuary in China”, Orientations 1993.8: 40-45. - (X.0518)   « Less

This imposing Buddha dates from the dynamic period surrounding the second half then collapse of the M’ing Dynasty, and the rise of the Q’ing. This period spans  More »

This imposing Buddha dates from the dynamic period surrounding the second half then collapse of the M’ing Dynasty, and the rise of the Q’ing. This period spans the 15th to 17th centuries AD, and saw many of the most important developments in Chinese culture. The M’ing, founded in 1368 under the peasant emperor Hong Wu, was a militarily oriented socio-political entity much given to radical interpretations of Confucianism and with a very strong defensive ethos (the Great Wall dates to this period). However by the 17th century cracks had started to appear, young male heirs being manipulated as puppets by the ruling families, and the court became rotten with intrigue. To compound matters, the Manchurian Chinese cities were being attacked by local groups – dubbed the Manchus – who eventually invaded China and deposed the old regime. The last M’ing emperor, Chongzhen, hanged himself on Coal Hill overlooking the Forbidden City, bringing an end to his line and ushering in the Q’ing dynasty.The Q’ing had been founded by Nurhaci in the early 17th century, and persisted until the collapse of imperial China in 1912 with the hapless Pu-Yi, the last emperor of China. Their isolationist policies, social control (all men required to shave their heads, wear queues, and wear Manchu rather than traditional Chinese dress) introspection and cultural conservatism was at odds with their liberality in certain social issues – such as forbidding the binding of women’s feet (later withdrawn due to social pressure from the populace). However, this cultural inflexibility – which grew as the emperors grew increasingly unaware of the world outside their palace walls, much less the country’s borders – was a difficult stance to maintain in the shadow of the European thalassocracies, and it may have been this which helped hasten the demise of the Imperial system.The M’ing and the Q’ing dynasties were highly creative times, seeing the appearance of the first novels written in the vernacular, considerable development in the visual arts and outstanding craftsmanship in all fields. The present sculpture is a case in fact, and it is perhaps somewhat disarming to reflect that this peaceful figure dates from a period of such spectacular turmoil.The Buddha represented is the Vairocana variant – that is, the divine universal aspect of Sakiamuni Buddha. He is seated in yogic posture, his legs folded in padnasanam (lotus position), the left hand resting flat on the knee (unusually) and the right hand raised in vitarka mudra (gesture of debate with the forefinger tip touching the thumb). The face has been beautifully carved into a mask of imperturbable serenity and reflection, framed by the long earlobes and the hair, which has been gathered into small, serrated spikes that cover the head like a helmet. The only part exposed is the supracranial eminence traditionally associated with Buddha’s wisdom and sagacity. The drapery is simple, and robustly carved. It comprises a tunic tied at the waist with a long flowing robe that hangs to the waist and is gathered to cover the legs. The chest is bare. The Buddha is otherwise unadorned, which is appropriate given his penchant for simplicity and purity, and at odds with the more decorated Bodhisattva sculptures. The impact of the piece is boosted by its large size (38” tall), which gives it a powerful and magisterial presence. This is a true sculptural gem that deserves pride of place in a serious collection, or in any context where its beauty can be fully appreciated. - (X.0707 (LSO))   « Less