Originating during the Six Dynasties period (222-589 A.D.), this type of figure is known as a tomb guardian, for originally, a pair of such figures always stood guard at the  More »

Originating during the Six Dynasties period (222-589 A.D.), this type of figure is known as a tomb guardian, for originally, a pair of such figures always stood guard at the tombs of Chinese rulers. Traditionally, both figures in the pair are mythological composite creatures, one always an amalgamation of various animals while the other combined of human and animal traits. These guardians are a general type of Chinese art known as mingqi. Mingqi were any of a variety of objects specifically created for interment in the tombs of elite individuals in order to provide for the afterlife. These guardians were most likely interred in order to ward off potential tomb robbers or perhaps evil spirits in the next world that might try to infiltrate the tomb. This mythological beast combines the body of an ox, complete with hooves, with the head of a human. Wings emerge from his shoulders and flames crown his head. Despite the snarling human features of his face, this figure is adorned with large animal ears that appear almost like fish fins. Furthermore, a spiraling horn emerges from the forehead of this beast, reinforcing his frightful appearance. Although these works are supposed to be frightful, the masterfully delicate sculpting of their flaming heads and the gorgeous colors of their Sancai glaze prove more attractive than repelling. - (H.680)   « Less

Originating during the Six Dynasties period (222-589 A.D.), this type of figure is known as a tomb guardian, for originally, a pair of such figures always stood guard at the  More »

Originating during the Six Dynasties period (222-589 A.D.), this type of figure is known as a tomb guardian, for originally, a pair of such figures always stood guard at the tombs of Chinese rulers. Traditionally, both figures in the pair are mythological composite creatures, one always an amalgamation of various animals while the other combined of human and animal traits. These guardians are a general type of Chinese art known as mingqi. Mingqi were any of a variety of objects specifically created for interment in the tombs of elite individuals in order to provide for the afterlife. These guardians were most likely interred in order to ward off potential tomb robbers or perhaps evil spirits in the next world that might try to infiltrate the tomb. This mythological beast combines the body of an ox, complete with hooves, with the head of a lion. Wings emerge from his shoulders and flames crown his head. Furthermore, a pair of antlers rises from his head, framing the crest of flames and adding to his hostile appearance. The work is covered in a gorgeous tri-colored Sancai glaze that partially imitates the spotted and stripped coat of various exotic beasts. Although these works are supposed to be frightful, the masterfully delicate sculpting of their flaming heads and the gorgeous colors of their Sancai glaze prove more attractive than repelling. - (H.681)   « Less

The Tang Dynasty was an era of unrivalled wealth and luxury. The country was successfully reunified and the borders were expanded, pushing Chinese influence into new lands.  More »

The Tang Dynasty was an era of unrivalled wealth and luxury. The country was successfully reunified and the borders were expanded, pushing Chinese influence into new lands. Confucianism became a semi-religious instrument of the state; yet Buddhism continued to flourish, spreading into Korea and Japan. The arts reached new levels of sophistication. Poetry and literature flourished under the enlightened rulers. The Silk Road brought fortunes into China. Precious treasures were imported on the backs of camels from far away lands and bartered for Chinese silk, medicinal herbs, and pungent spices. Tang China was a multicultural empire where foreign merchants from across Central Asia and the Middle East settled in the urban centers, foremost among them the thriving capital of Chang’an (modern X’ian), a bustling cosmopolitan center of over two million inhabitants. Foreign traders lived next to native artisans and both thrived. New ideas and exotic artistic forms followed alongside. The Tang Dynasty was a cultural renaissance where many of the forms and objects we now associate with China were first created. Moreover, this period represents one of the greatest cultural outpourings in human history.The great influence of the horse throughout the history of China cannot be underestimated. In fact, the ancient expansion of the Chinese Empire was due in large part to the horse. The rapid mobility of horses allowed for quick communication between far away provinces. Likewise, the military role of horses aided in the defense of the borders from nomadic invaders as well as the conquest and submission of distant lands. The need to import stronger, faster steeds from Central Asia (as opposed to the local Mongol pony) led to the creation of the Silk Road. The importance of the horse in the history and culture of China can be viewed, in part, through the artistic legacy of this great civilization. In sculpture, painting, and literature, horses were glorified and revered. Furthermore, horses were believed to be relatives of the mythological dragon, reflecting their sacred status within society.This general type of Chinese burial art is known as mingqi. Mingqi were any of a variety of objects specifically created for interment in the tombs of elite individuals in order to provide for the afterlife. This sculpture depicts a noble lady riding upon a fine steed, inscribed on its hind leg with the Chinese characters denoting, “offical horse,” suggesting her and the horse’s elite status. Riding horses was a popular aristocratic tradition, as well as playing polo, illuminating the link between the upper crust of Tang society and horses. The early dating of this work is reflective of the stylization of the horses head and legs that were characteristic of the preceding Sui Dynasty. Overall, this sculpture is a testament to the revered status of the horse in Chinese culture, a love that reached new heights of expression during the Tang Dynasty. - (H.686)   « Less

The T’ang Dynasty was an era of unrivalled wealth and luxury. The country was successfully reunified and the borders were expanded, pushing Chinese influence into new  More »

The T’ang Dynasty was an era of unrivalled wealth and luxury. The country was successfully reunified and the borders were expanded, pushing Chinese influence into new lands. Confucianism became a semi-religious instrument of the state; yet Buddhism continued to flourish, spreading into Korea and Japan. The arts reached new levels of sophistication. Poetry and literature flourished under the enlightened rulers. The Silk Road brought fortunes into China. Precious treasures were imported on the backs of camels from far away lands and bartered for Chinese silk, medicinal herbs, and pungent spices. T’ang China was a multicultural empire where foreign merchants from across Central Asia and the Middle East settled in the urban centers, foremost among them the thriving capital of Chang’an (modern X’ian), a bustling cosmopolitan center of over two million inhabitants. Foreign traders lived next to native artisans and both thrived. New ideas and exotic artistic forms followed alongside. The T’ang Dynasty was a cultural renaissance where many of the forms and objects we now associate with China were first created. Moreover, this period represents one of the greatest cultural outpourings in human history.This general type of Chinese burial art is known as mingqi. Mingqi were any of a variety of objects specifically created for interment in the tombs of elite individuals in order to provide for the afterlife. Many of these works reflect Chinese contact with a variety of foreigners including Jewish merchants, Persian traders, and various tribes from Central Asia who were essential for their supply of fine steeds. The great influence of the horse throughout the history of China cannot be underestimated. In fact, the ancient expansion of the Chinese Empire was due in large part to the horse. The rapid mobility of horses allowed for quick communication between far away provinces. Likewise, the military role of horses aided in the defense of the borders from nomadic invaders as well as the conquest and submission of distant lands. The need to import stronger, faster steeds from Central Asia (as opposed to the local Mongol pony) led to the creation of the Silk Road.The importance of the horse in the history and culture of China can be viewed, in part, through the artistic legacy of this great civilization. In sculpture, painting, and literature, horses were glorified and revered. Furthermore, horses were believed to be relatives of the mythological dragon, reflecting their sacred status within society. This sculpture depicts a fat foreigner, his swollen belly popping out of his open tunic, riding horseback. His large, hooked nose and beard reveal his foreign status and he was probably a Jewish merchant from Central Asia working the Silk Road. The early dating of this work is reflective of the stylization of the horses head and legs that were characteristic of the preceding Sui Dynasty. Overall, this sculpture is a testament to the revered status of the horse in Chinese culture, a love that reached new heights of expression during the T’ang Dynasty. - (H.687)   « Less

The great influence of the horse throughout the history of China cannot be underestimated. In fact, the ancient expansion of the Chinese Empire was due in large part to the  More »

The great influence of the horse throughout the history of China cannot be underestimated. In fact, the ancient expansion of the Chinese Empire was due in large part to the horse. The rapid mobility of horses allowed for quick communication between far away provinces. Likewise, the military role of horses aided in the defense of the borders from nomadic invaders as well as the conquest and submission of distant lands. The need to import stronger, faster steeds from Central Asia (as opposed to the native Mongol pony) led to the creation of the Silk Road. The importance of the horse in the history and culture of China can be viewed, in part, through the artistic legacy of this great civilization. In sculpture, painting, and literature, horses were glorified and revered. Furthermore, horses were believed to be relatives of the mythological dragon, reflecting their sacred status within society. This gorgeous white horse is a splendid example of the T’ang Sancai glazed horse, one of the most beloved types of Chinese art. The horse is elegantly modeled and decorated with a painted red saddle and stripped numnah and splendid green-glazed reigns and headstall, reflecting the luxurious regalia that horses were honored with. Overall, this sculpture is a testament to the revered status of the horse in Chinese culture, a love that reached new heights of expression during the T’ang Dynasty. - (H.676)   « Less

After the fall of the T’ang Dynasty, a period of unrest and war ensued, finally ending with the establishment of the Song Dynasty. The Song era was considered a time  More »

After the fall of the T’ang Dynasty, a period of unrest and war ensued, finally ending with the establishment of the Song Dynasty. The Song era was considered a time of consolidation for Chinese culture. Traditional text were reanalyzed and reinterpreted, bringing forth a revival of Confucianism peppered with new ideas. Once again, civil scholars became more influential than their military counterparts. This was an era of peace, where technology and innovation flourished. Trade now focused on the seas, since the Silk Road had since been cut off. The Song viewed themselves as the culmination of two thousand years of Chinese culture. However, splinters began to emerge among the various ethnic groups that had been unified under the T’ang. As these ethnic rivalries began to grow, the government became fractured as officials began to oppose each other, allowing the Mongols from the north to invade and conquer.The Taoist immortal has long been a favorite subject of Chinese statuary art. These legendary beings are said to have lived at various times and attained immortality through their studies of Nature’s secrets. Their special powers include the ability to become invisible, raising the dead, changing tangible objects into gold, and transforming their appearance. Shown standing on a rectangular base, this figure wears a long crossover robe belted above the waist, high boots, and a squarish cap. The draping folds of the robe are exposed as the figure raises his arms, assuming a lively gesture that captures the movement of a walking figure. The position of the arms and evidence of holes in the hands implies the figure could have held a walking stick or emblematic object. The figure’s jovial expression is conveyed through the well-modeled eyes, cheekbones, nose and beard that appears to sway with the sound of laughter. - (H.041)   « Less

The overextension of the labor force during the Qin Dynasty would result in a popular uprising against the empire. In 206 B.C., Liu Bang, a Qin official, led an army composed  More »

The overextension of the labor force during the Qin Dynasty would result in a popular uprising against the empire. In 206 B.C., Liu Bang, a Qin official, led an army composed of peasants and some lower nobility to victory and established his own Dynasty in place, the Han. However, unlike the Qin, the Han would unify China and rule virtually uncontested for over four hundred years. It is during this time that much of what is now considered to be Chinese culture was first actualized. The bureaucracy started under the Qin was now firmly established. The vast lands of China were now under the firm grip of a central authority. Confucianism became the state ideology although the worship of Taoist deity remained widespread, both among the peasants and the aristocracy. Ancient histories and texts were analyzed and rewritten to be more objective while new legendary myths and cultural epics were transcribed.The Han era can also be characterized as one of the greatest artistic outpourings in Chinese history, easily on par with the glories of their Western contemporaries, Greece and Rome. Wealth pouring into China from trade along the Silk Road initiated a period of unprecedented luxury. Stunning bronze vessels were created, decorated with elegant inlaid gold and silver motifs. Jade carvings reached a new level of technical brilliance. But perhaps the artistic revival of the Han Dynasty is nowhere better represented than in their sculptures and vessels that were interred with deceased nobles. Called mingqi, literally meaning “spirit articles,” these works depicted a vast array of subject, from warriors and horses to ovens and livestock, which were buried alongside the dead for use in the next world, reflecting the Chinese belief that the afterlife was an extension of our earthy existence. Thus, quite logically, the things we require to sustain and nurture our bodies in this life would be just as necessary in our next life.The Han Dynasty, like the Zhou before it, is divided into two distinct periods, the Western Han (206 B.C.-9 A.D.) and the Eastern Han (23- 220 A.D.) with a brief interlude. Towards the end of the Western period, a series of weak emperors ruled the throne, controlled from behind the scenes by Wang Mang and Huo Guang, both relatives of empresses. They both exerted enormous influence over the government and when the last emperor suddenly passed away, Mang became ruling advisor, seizing this opportunity to declare his own Dynasty, the Xin, or “New.” However, another popular uprising began joined by the members of the Liu clan, the family that ruled the Han Dynasty, the Xin came to a quick end and the Eastern Han was established in its place with its capital at Loyang (Chang’an, the capital of the Western Han, was completely destroyed).However, even as Chinese influence spread across Southeastern Asia into new lands, the Eastern Han Dynasty was unable to recreate the glories of the Western Period. In fact, this period can be characterized by a bitter power struggle amongst a group of five consortial clans. These families sought to control the young, weak emperors with their court influence. Yet, as the emperors became distrustful of the rising power of the clans, they relied upon their eunuchs to defend them, often eliminating entire families at a time. During the Western Han, the Emperor was viewed as the center of the universe. However, this philosophy slowly disintegrated under the weak, vulnerable rulers of the Eastern Han, leading many scholars and officials to abandon the court. Eventually, the power of the Han would completely erode, ending with its dissolution and the beginning of the period known as the “Three Kingdoms.”This terracotta dog is a splendid example of mingqi, literally translated as: “items for the next world.” During the Han Dynasty, the ancient Chinese believed that the afterlife was an extension of our earthly existence. Thus, high- ranking members of the social hierarchy were buried in splendid tombs replete with replicas of their daily lives rendered in all media. It is not uncommon to find ornate dinner sets with elegantly painted utensils, wine vessels, and food storage containers. Sculpted replica of warriors and guardians provided protection as musicians and entertainers provided company. Likewise, herds of domesticated animals were interred alongside the deceased to serve as food sources in the afterlife.Although it is possible that this dog was entombed for consumption in the next world, the studded collar and harness he wears suggests otherwise. More likely, this dog was a beloved companion who served his owner well both on earth and beyond. His ears stand upwards in attention, as if carefully guarding his master throughout eternity. The heavy folds of skin around the eyes, feet, and jowls and the curly tail, as well as the general size and stature, suggest that this dog may be an ancient Chinese Shar Pei, a breed noted for their wrinkled physique. Although similar works were meant to serve as food for the afterlife, the love and attention invested in the creation of this stunning work of art suggests that this dog is much more than food. Instead, this beloved pet sits faithfully by his master’s side throughout eternity. - (H.642)   « Less

The overextension of the labor force during the Qin Dynasty would result in a popular uprising against the empire. In 206 B.C., Liu Bang, a Qin official, led an army composed  More »

The overextension of the labor force during the Qin Dynasty would result in a popular uprising against the empire. In 206 B.C., Liu Bang, a Qin official, led an army composed of peasants and some lower nobility to victory and established his own Dynasty in place, the Han. However, unlike the Qin, the Han would unify China and rule virtually uncontested for over four hundred years. It is during this time that much of what is now considered to be Chinese culture was first actualized. The bureaucracy started under the Qin was now firmly established. The vast lands of China were now under the firm grip of a central authority. Confucianism became the state ideology although the worship of Taoist deity remained widespread, both among the peasants and the aristocracy. Ancient histories and texts were analyzed and rewritten to be more objective while new legendary myths and cultural epics were transcribed.The Han era can also be characterized as one of the greatest artistic outpourings in Chinese history, easily on par with the glories of their Western contemporaries, Greece and Rome. Wealth pouring into China from trade along the Silk Road initiated a period of unprecedented luxury. Stunning bronze vessels were created, decorated with elegant inlaid gold and silver motifs. Jade carvings reached a new level of technical brilliance. But perhaps the artistic revival of the Han Dynasty is nowhere better represented than in their sculptures and vessels that were interred with deceased nobles. Called mingqi, literally meaning “spirit articles,” these works depicted a vast array of subject, from warriors and horses to ovens and livestock, which were buried alongside the dead for use in the next world, reflecting the Chinese belief that the afterlife was an extension of our earthy existence. Thus, quite logically, the things we require to sustain and nurture our bodies in this life would be just as necessary in our next life.The Han Dynasty, like the Zhou before it, is divided into two distinct periods, the Western Han (206 B.C.-9 A.D.) and the Eastern Han (23-220 A.D.) with a brief interlude. Towards the end of the Western period, a series of weak emperors ruled the throne, controlled from behind the scenes by Wang Mang and Huo Guang, both relatives of empresses. They both exerted enormous influence over the government and when the last emperor suddenly passed away, Mang became ruling advisor, seizing this opportunity to declare his own Dynasty, the Xin, or “New.” However, another popular uprising began joined by the members of the Liu clan, the family that ruled the Han Dynasty, the Xin came to a quick end and the Eastern Han was established in its place with its capital at Loyang (Chang’an, the capital of the Western Han, was completely destroyed).However, even as Chinese influence spread across Southeastern Asia into new lands, the Eastern Han Dynasty was unable to recreate the glories of the Western Period. In fact, this period can be characterized by a bitter power struggle amongst a group of five consortial clans. These families sought to control the young, weak emperors with their court influence. Yet, as the emperors became distrustful of the rising power of the clans, they relied upon their eunuchs to defend them, often eliminating entire families at a time. During the Western Han, the Emperor was viewed as the center of the universe. However, this philosophy slowly disintegrated under the weak, vulnerable rulers of the Eastern Han, leading many scholars and officials to abandon the court. Eventually, the power of the Han would completely erode, ending with its dissolution and the beginning of the period known as the “Three Kingdoms.”Juizhous, bronze wine tables of this type, are extremely rare. While similar works in green-glazed ceramic, imitating bronze originals, are more frequent, they are often discovered only with a few of the cups surviving. To have a complete set, intact, in bronze is exceptional. This masterpiece, however, is exceptional even amongst other similar bronze examples. The legs, shaped like horse hooves, which support the table, are unusual. The vibrant red pigment that adorns the inside of the cups is phenomenal. The rich patinas that graze this set are quite varied due to their location. Discovered buried inside a tomb, this wine tasting set clearly played as important a role in the afterlife as it did in this world.This set reveals as much about the sophisticated social customs of the Han Dynasty as it does about their spiritual beliefs. Clearly, the joys of life, including the enjoyment of wine, continue on into the next world. This set was not interred with its owner as a memorial to his wealth, but as a functional tool meant for use in the afterlife. In fact, this table and these cups were forged by a master to survive throughout eternity, as they seemingly have. While we gaze upon this set and hold the cups in our hands, raising them up to our lips, we are transported back in time. We repeat the same actions that occurred almost two millennia ago. Yet, the action of drinking would have continued into the afterlife and beyond. Thus we can hold these cups and imagine saying a toast, to the original owner of this set, who continues to treasure this remarkable work of art from the next world as we do in our own. - (H.646)   « Less

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty  More »

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368. As emperor, he founded his capital at Nanjing and adopted the name Hongwu as his reign title. Hongwu, literally meaning “vast military,” reflects the increased prestige of the army during the Ming Dynasty. Due to the very realistic threat still posed by the Mongols, Hongwu realized that a strong military was essential to Chinese prosperity. Thus, the orthodox Confucian view that the military was an inferior class to be ruled over by an elite class of scholars was reconsidered. During the Ming Dynasty, China proper was reunited after centuries of foreign incursion and occupation. Ming troops controlled Manchuria, and the Korean Joseon Dynasty respected the authority of the Ming rulers, at least nominally.Like the founders of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.- 220 A.D.), Hongwu was extremely suspicious of the educated courtiers that advised him and, fearful that they might attempt to overthrow him, he successfully consolidated control of all aspect of government. The strict authoritarian control Hongwu wielded over the affairs of the country was due in part to the centralized system of government he inherited from the Monguls and largely kept intact. However, Hongwu replaced the Mongul bureaucrats who had ruled the country for nearly a century with native Chinese administrators. He also reinstituted the Confucian examination system that tested would-be civic officials on their knowledge of literature and philosophy. Unlike the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), which received most of its taxes from mercantile commerce, the Ming economy was based primarily on agriculture, reflecting both the peasant roots of its founder as well as the Confucian belief that trade was ignoble and parasitic.Culturally, the greatest innovation of the Ming Dynasty was the introduction of the novel. Developed from the folk tales of traditional storytellers, these works were transcribed in the everyday vernacular language of the people. Advances in printmaking and the increasing population of urban dwellers largely contributed to the success of these books. Architecturally, the most famous monument of the Ming Dynasty is surely the complex of temples and palaces known as the Forbidden City that was constructed in Beijing after the third ruler of the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Yongle, moved the capital there. Today, the Forbidded Palace remains one of the hallmarks of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the vast nation.Large sculptures of celestial guardians usually line the entrance of tomb complexes, offering halls, and temples to remove forces of evil and ensure harmonious ties between the spiritual and material worlds. This bust of a guardian, called a Heavenly King, exemplifies the traditional aesthetic tastes for realistically represented sculptures. The religious and ceremonial significance of this work is reflected by the luxurious decorations that adorn it. The entire face of the figure has been gilt. Over the ages, the vibrant luster of the gold has faded into dark hues of brown; however, upon close inspection, one can still discern remnants of the former luminosity. The guardian is crowned with a headdress, painted blue and white, featuring two decorative panels depicting red and white flowers, perhaps orchids, on either side of his stern face.The forceful expression of this guardian surely intimidated and commanded reverence from followers although it was meant to scare away evil spirits. Perhaps he would have discouraged non-believers from entering the hallowed ground he protected. The energy of his expression and the naturalism of the sculpture are both equally heightened by the inlaid glass pupils. The eyes appear eerily realistic, as the guardian almost seems to gaze back out at us. Surely, this guard would be pleased by what he sees. Although he has been transplanted from the temple or shrine he once protected, this statue continues to be revered and adored. Once he was appreciated for his spiritual and religious powers; yet now he is revered for his tremendous cultural, historical, and artistic significance. - (H.647)   « Less

In 1122 B.C., at the battle of Muyeh, the rebellious Zhou tribe defeated the imperial troops of the Shang Dynasty, China’s first Imperial Dynasty. The Zhou Dynasty is  More »

In 1122 B.C., at the battle of Muyeh, the rebellious Zhou tribe defeated the imperial troops of the Shang Dynasty, China’s first Imperial Dynasty. The Zhou Dynasty is itself composed of two periods that historians have dubbed Western (1122-771 B.C.) and Eastern (770-221 B.C.). During the Western period, the Zhou ruled from their capital Zongzhou (near modern X’ian). While the Zhou were highly influence by the Shang, over time, they developed their own unique style of decorating bronze and terracotta vessels. Perhaps their most important artistic innovation was the creation of primitive glazes. However, ambitious campaigns to expand their territory westward failed, and in 771, nomadic invaders ransacked Zongzhou, forcing the Zhou to flee eastwards to the city of Chengzhou, which became their second capital.China was perhaps the most civilized culture of the ancient world. Their science, philosophy, art, and technology were all years ahead of most other cultures. One gains an idea of their sophistication and wealth when viewing this stunning bronze Yi. Once, long ago, before sitting down to a ceremonial feast, nobility would have washed their hands with this vessel, thus beginning the structured ritual of dining. Both the beauty and luxury of this work implies that it would have been the possession of the King, or perhaps a close member of his royal entourage. Quite simply, few people but the king could afford such a treasure. By far, the most unique, and charming, feature of this vessel is the legs and feet. The legs are shaped as stylized dragons with incised details while the feet depict four naturally rendered squatting bovine figures. The dragon motif reoccurs on the openwork “handles” attached to the two sides while a frieze of swirling patterns typical of the Zhou style covers the body. The proper handle at the back of the vessel is surmounted by a stylized horned dragon head.Discovered inside an ancient tomb, this Yi was treasured as much in life as in the afterworld. During this era, the Chinese believed that the afterlife was an extension of our earthly existence. Thus, important people were often enshrined with their treasured possessions as well as works specifically commissioned to be interred. Although most Yi vessels of the rounded bottom type were created during the Eastern Zhou period, scholars believe that this form was introduced during the closure of the previous Western Zhou Dynasty, from when this vessel dates. Over the centuries, this work has acquired a fantastic and varied patina that only enhances the beauty and texture of the work. - (H.653)   « Less