Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty  More »

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368. As emperor, he founded his capital at Nanjing and adopted the name Hongwu as his reign title. Hongwu, literally meaning “vast military,” reflects the increased prestige of the army during the Ming Dynasty. Due to the very realistic threat still posed by the Mongols, Hongwu realized that a strong military was essential to Chinese prosperity. Thus, the orthodox Confucian view that the military was an inferior class to be ruled over by an elite class of scholars was reconsidered. During the Ming Dynasty, China proper was reunited after centuries of foreign incursion and occupation. Ming troops controlled Manchuria, and the Korean Joseon Dynasty respected the authority of the Ming rulers, at least nominally. Like the founders of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.- 220 A.D.), Hongwu was extremely suspicious of the educated courtiers that advised him and, fearful that they might attempt to overthrow him, he successfully consolidated control of all aspect of government. The strict authoritarian control Hongwu wielded over the affairs of the country was due in part to the centralized system of government he inherited from the Monguls and largely kept intact. However, Hongwu replaced the Mongul bureaucrats who had ruled the country for nearly a century with native Chinese administrators. He also reinstituted the Confucian examination system that tested would-be civic officials on their knowledge of literature and philosophy. Unlike the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), which received most of its taxes from mercantile commerce, the Ming economy was based primarily on agriculture, reflecting both the peasant roots of its founder as well as the Confucian belief that trade was ignoble and parasitic. Culturally, the greatest innovation of the Ming Dynasty was the introduction of the novel. Developed from the folk tales of traditional storytellers, these works were transcribed in the everyday vernacular language of the people. Advances in printmaking and the increasing population of urban dwellers largely contributed to the success of these books. Architecturally, the most famous monument of the Ming Dynasty is surely the complex of temples and palaces known as the Forbidden City that was constructed in Beijing after the third ruler of the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Yongle, moved the capital there. Today, the Forbidded Palace remains one of the hallmarks of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the vast nation. Buddhist iconography of the Ming period is characterized by an attempt to syncretize elements of movement associated with Tibetan iconography and simplistic sculptural styles of China. It is likely that its body assumed a gentle pose or maintained the thematic simplicity apparent in the facial features. His hair is combed tightly over a square shaped head, dramatizing the length of his characteristically elongated ears. The eyebrows, eyes, nose, mouth, cheeks, and chin are carved with as little detail as possible to convey the transcendental nature of the Buddha from different stages of absorption. The creation of images, both large and small, highlights the devotional intent of Buddhist art. The pious hoped to gain merit into the next world by making an offering image of the Buddha and of Bodhisattvas, beings who have attained enlightenment but have elected to remain in the world in order to assist mankind. Images were also didactic, conveying aspects of doctrine and belief. In the Ming period imposing representations of many different Buddhist deities were made. The strong shape and bold face of this Buddha head give an impression of inward contemplation, and the power of the image lies in its static form. Slightly smiling, the Buddha reveals his inner disposition of benevolence and kindness, a trait the Buddha cherished in its full capacity. - (H.527)   « Less

The Yuan Dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, upon relocating the capital of his empire from Mongolia to Beijing. The Forbidden City was  More »

The Yuan Dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, upon relocating the capital of his empire from Mongolia to Beijing. The Forbidden City was constructed, a relative oasis of Mongolian culture in the heart of China. While the Mongol elite retained their native language and customs, they did adapt the Chinese system of bureaucratic government and cemented the authoritarian rule of the emperor. Although they were unaffected by Chinese culture, the Yuan did little to stifle the native traditions and beliefs of their subjects. Buddhism continued to flourish, although the monasteries received little funding from the state. In fact, during the Yuan Dynasty, China first began to open up to foreigners. Christian and Hindu missionaries were established in Beijing and Marco Polo made his famous journey during the Yuan era. While the Chinese never accepted the Yuan as a legitimate dynasty, instead viewing them as foreign bandits, the Mongolians rebelled against the Beijing Khans for becoming, “too Chinese.” In the end, the Yuan Dynasty had the shortest duration of the major Chinese Dynasties, lasting little more than a hundred years.In this Yuan relief, a mythical animal called a qilin (unicorn) frolics in a pasture composed of clouds, conch shells, and shrubs. Usually pictured alone, the unicorn is said to attain the age of one thousand years, and to be the noblest form of animal creation, the emblem of perfect goodness. It is regarded as a happy portent, on its alleged appearance, of the advent of good government or the birth of virtuous rulers. The unicorn envelops itself with benevolence, and crowns itself with rectitude. A fabulous creature of good omen, and the symbol of longevity, grandeur, felicity, illustrious offspring, and wise administration, the qilin became a popular motif in court clothing of high-ranking officials, paintings, chinaware and architectural reliefs.This representation of a qilin reflects the common myth and lore regarding its appearance and adheres to iconographic standards for depicting a qilin. Because its footsteps bring good to those who cross over them, the qilin is pictured in light stride, all fours blessing the ground it touches, never inflicting harm to the grass or insects it encounters. Surrounded by either fire or clouds, it is also pictured with its head turned back and mouth wide open, from which the sound of bells and other musical instruments can be heard. The qilin possesses all the good qualities that are to be found among all hairy animals such as a kind disposition, discriminating mind, and brightly colored skin. It resembles a stag in its general form but combines the body of the musk deer with the tail of an ox, the forehead of a wolf, the hoofs of a horse, and a soft-tipped horn emblematic of its unique, gentle nature. The auspicious nature of the qilin emanates from this relief sculpture that is sure to inject positive energy into its surroundings. - (H.528)   « Less

After almost four hundred years of civil war and division, Yang Jian succeeded in reunifying north and south under one authority, the Sui Dynasty. However, despite its brief  More »

After almost four hundred years of civil war and division, Yang Jian succeeded in reunifying north and south under one authority, the Sui Dynasty. However, despite its brief duration, lasting for the rule of only two emperors, the Sui Dynasty paved the way for the cultural renaissance that would arise during the T’ang Dynasty. Reforms were introduced to wrest power out of the hands of the aristocracy, military, and Buddhist communities. The Confucianist system of selecting government officials from state schools, by means of rigorous examinations, was initiated. Perhaps their most significant program was the construction of the Great Canal, a project that facilitated the movement of people and goods across great distances, aiding in the reunification of China. However, the cost of the Canal bankrupted the empire and ultimately led to its dissolution, coupled with a failed campaign to conquer Korea. The rulers of the T’ang would capitalize on the infrastructure improvements of the Sui and establish one of the greatest empires in the history of China, following the footsteps of the Sui. An emblem of speed and perseverance, the horse has always served a special role in Chinese life. This Sui representation attests to horse as a symbol of wealth and status among the aristocratic classes. Its long slender legs, hogged mane, streamline body and decorative saddle and bridle give it an air of prestige and elegance unsurpassed by earlier representations which emphasized brute force through a blockish body line. Its powerfully rounded neck, muscular throat-latch, and tuff of hair reaching between its standing ears enhance its confidence and serene composure. The details of its gear--studded bridle and leather straps of imperial regalia--indicate its use in ceremonial processions. After the unification of the empire under the Sui, tomb figurines came to reflect the sophisticated world of wealthy nobles from the north, accustomed to foreign contact, travel, and a luxurious lifestyle in the capital city as the tomb became a powerful political instrument to reinforce the might of the central government. Thus the underlying theme became status and mobility. Replacing the ox cart as a means to transport the deceased to the other world, a saddled horse occupied a privilege position in close proximity to the coffin or tomb tablet. This figurine of a horse not only reflects the artistic sensibilities and beliefs of the early Chinese, but contains the energy of the horse whose honorable duty was to facilitate the journey into the other world. - (H.530)   « Less

The T’ang Dynasty was an era of unrivalled wealth and luxury. The country was successfully reunified and the borders were expanded, pushing Chinese influence into new  More »

The T’ang Dynasty was an era of unrivalled wealth and luxury. The country was successfully reunified and the borders were expanded, pushing Chinese influence into new lands. Confucianism became a semi-religious instrument of the state; yet Buddhism continued to flourish, spreading into Korea and Japan. The arts reached new levels of sophistication. Poetry and literature flourished under the enlightened rulers. The Silk Road brought fortunes into China. Precious treasures were imported on the backs of camels from far away lands and bartered for Chinese silk, medicinal herbs, and pungent spices. T’ang China was a multicultural empire where foreign merchants from across Central Asia and the Middle East settled in the urban centers, foremost among them the thriving capital of Chang’an (modern X’ian), a bustling cosmopolitan center of over two million inhabitants. Foreign traders lived next to native artisans and both thrived. New ideas and exotic artistic forms followed alongside. The T’ang Dynasty was a cultural renaissance where many of the forms and objects we now associate with China were first created. Moreover, this period represents one of the greatest cultural outpourings in human history.Mingqi (spirit articles) were a prominent feature of Chinese mortuary pottery made for the nobility and distinguished men. Over time the subject matter changed to reflect current fashions, interests and concerns. Clay figures of military generals, included in tombs since the Western Han period, are particularly good illustrations of those permutations. Military successes ensured security and fostered expansiveness as maritime and overland trade routes, such as the Silk Road, extended the trading sphere from Japan to the Byzantine and Islamic empires, bringing foreign peoples to the capital. This cultural diversity is depicted in the costumes, facial features, occupations, and pastimes of mingqi figures that began to embrace realism in form and detail unusual in Chinese art.this sculpture of a military officer captures the vitality of a gallant warrior as well as attests this flowering a cultural diversity. Foreigners were often depicted with more facial hair and prominent noses. This bearded warrior appears to combine Chinese and foreign attributes, accentuating the ferocity and tenacity of the soldier's spirit. The body is clad in heavy armor--the chest plates are divided into four sections with decorative motifs and the shoulder plates cover the upper arm which is protected by a second layer of clothing tied above the chain mail of the forearm. In typical T'ang fashion, the soft clothing and armor extend beyond the waist where it is cinched with a studded belt. The officer wears ballooned pants drawn at the ankles over leather boots and sports protective headgear that is characterized by a protuberance on the top of the helmet. His arms gesture as if he were grasping weapons in both hands as he stands in an attentive ready-to-strike position.This sculpture is a magnificent example of the T'ang artisan's attempt to imbue the medium with the spirit and vitality of an actual person so that it could perform its duties to protect and guide the deceased in hospitable environments. - (H.553)   « Less

The Yuan Dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, upon relocating the capital of his empire from Mongolia to Beijing. The Forbidden City was  More »

The Yuan Dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, upon relocating the capital of his empire from Mongolia to Beijing. The Forbidden City was constructed, a relative oasis of Mongolian culture in the heart of China. While the Mongol elite retained their native language and customs, they did adapt the Chinese system of bureaucratic government and cemented the authoritarian rule of the emperor. Although they were unaffected by Chinese culture, the Yuan did little to stifle the native traditions and beliefs of their subjects. Buddhism continued to flourish, although the monasteries received little funding from the state. In fact, during the Yuan Dynasty, China first began to open up to foreigners. Christian and Hindu missionaries were established in Beijing and Marco Polo made his famous journey during the Yuan era. While the Chinese never accepted the Yuan as a legitimate dynasty, instead viewing them as foreign bandits, the Mongolians rebelled against the Beijing Khans for becoming, “too Chinese.” In the end, the Yuan Dynasty had the shortest duration of the major Chinese Dynasties, lasting little more than a hundred years.In this stone panel, the "Glorious Pavilion" is depicted in the foreground, while in the background are present a landscape of luscious trees with ripened fruit arching over the rooftop. The un-anchored four foundations of the pavilion give it the appearance of floating in a space separate from that of the figures below. A line of centrality is created by an imaginary pillar composed of a peacock drinking water at the base and three-tiered stele on top of the roof. An exquisitely dressed person is positioned on each side of the pillar--to the left a man is profiled, walking out of the panel's frame and to the right, a masked woman shifting her weight on one leg faces the viewer. The man appears to be a warrior, as if patrolling the grounds of the pavilion, carrying a weapon over his left shoulder and wearing a feathered battle headdress, sweeping cape, studded belt, and animal skin pants and boots. He is stylistically portrayed with an elongated neck and dramatic angular facial features. The woman wears a menacing mask with piercing eyes and tensed forehead although one is left wondering whether the mask differs from her face at all given the consistency of widen facial features. Perhaps possessing special powers, this woman seems to function as a protective entity, combining features of femininity and masculinity to enhance her appearance. The beautiful line of her body accentuated by a high midriff and multiple patterned dress fastened at the hip with a shawl and belt attest to her magnificence as she stands firmly holding a two-pronged device in her hand and balancing an intricate headdress on her head. This stone panel depicts a scene open to many interpretations, yet the consistent theme seems to be that this pavilion contains great sacred significance. - (H.555)   « Less

After the fall of the T¡¯ang Dynasty, a period of unrest and war ensued, finally ending with the establishment of the Song Dynasty. The Song era was considered a time  More »

After the fall of the T¡¯ang Dynasty, a period of unrest and war ensued, finally ending with the establishment of the Song Dynasty. The Song era was considered a time of consolidation for Chinese culture. Traditional text were reanalyzed and reinterpreted, bringing forth a revival of Confucianism peppered with new ideas. Once again, civil scholars became more influential than their military counterparts. This was an era of peace, where technology and innovation flourished. Trade now focused on the seas, since the Silk Road had since been cut off. The Song viewed themselves as the culmination of two thousand years of Chinese culture. However, splinters began to emerge among the various ethnic groups that had been unified under the T¡¯ang. As these ethnic rivalries began to grow, the government became fractured as officials began to oppose each other, allowing the Mongols from the north to invade and conquer.Stone figures usually line the entrance of tomb complexes, offering halls, and temples to remove forces of evil and ensure harmonious ties between the spiritual and material worlds. This granite guardian, called a Heavenly King, exemplifies Sung stylistic taste for realistic representation in stone figure art. The guardian's form resembles those of military officials whose sturdy, stout bodies convey strength, endurance, and determination--features commonly associated with calvary horses. His arched eyebrows, bulging eyes and menacing frown frighten evil spirits and mortal wrongdoers. Holding a four stringed guitar in his hands, he is seated with one leg forward as an expression of loyalty to whom he serves. When played, the guitar emits a magical sound which is heard throughout the world, setting the camps of enemies on fire. Dressed in chain mail armor gathered at the waist with a belt bearing the emblem of a mythical animal, he attends to the responsibilities of maintaining justice and order in the universe through his power to regulate climate and fortune. Likewise, the Heavenly Guardians were a popular choice of figures to be cast in stone and placed near sites of great spiritual and ritual value. The names of four guardians (heavenly kings) are generally as follow (sanskrit/chinese): 1. In the East: "Dhritarastra ¶«·½³Ö¹úÌìÍõ" Represents "Compassion" and ability to 'protect' a country. Usually the one holding a Pipa (a chinese instrument), symbolizing the use of music to encourage sentient beings to seek refuge in buddhism, protecting the east. 2. In the South: "Vidradhaka ÄÏ·½Ôö³¤ÌìÍõ" Generally means one who can encourage sentient beings to prolong their roots of kindness. He has green color body, and uses a sword, protecting the south. 3. In the West: "Virapaksa Î÷·½¹ãÄ¿ÌìÍõ" Generally means one who can look very far and observe the world and protect the people. Usually has a red body and is the leader of the 4 kings. He carries a dragon, and when one sees it, they will believe in buddhism. He also uses rope to catch believers and get them to see refuge in Buddhism. He was in charge of protecting the west. 4. In the North: "Vaisramana ±±·½¶àÎÅÌìÍõ" (sometimes also known as "ÅþɳÃÅ Pisamen") Generally means "one who knows alot". Usually has a green body and carries an umbrella on his right hand and carries a magic mouse on his left hand. These were used to subdue the demons and protect and maintain people's wealth. Sometimes, he is also known as the God of prosperity in India. The four guardians of Buddhism are sometimes also known as the "4 heavenly kings 四大天王". They were actually the "4 Dharma Protectors 四大护法" (i.e. Protectors of Buddhist teaching) whose mission is to protect the world, advise sentient beings to do good and avoid evil, records the deeds of sentient beings etc. In chinese Buddhist temples, you will often see the statues of these 4 deities in front of the gate/entrance to the temple. Sometimes, you can also see their paintings on the wooden door/gate of the temple. They were there to 'protect' the temple. In Buddhist cosmology, the universe was divided into 3 worlds: 1) the world of desire (欲界) 2) the world of form (色界) 3) the world of form-less (无色界) Most of sentient beings including humans are living in the world of desire, which has 6 levels of heaven known as "6 desire heavens 六欲天". The 1st levels of heaven (known as "Xuer Mountain 须弥山") has a mountain known as "Jiantuolo Mountain 犍陀罗山". This is where the 4 heavenly kings live. The Jiantuolo Mountain has 4 peaks, each of which protected by the heavenly kings. - (H.557)   « Less

Outstanding among Buddhist images is this Guanyin known as the Bodhisattva of Mercy and Compassion. The Guanyin makes helping others toward enlightenment her mission.  More »

Outstanding among Buddhist images is this Guanyin known as the Bodhisattva of Mercy and Compassion. The Guanyin makes helping others toward enlightenment her mission. Originally depicted as a male in early Chinese Buddhist forms, the Guanyin eventually became associated with a local Chinese Mother Goddess, "bringer of children," and also because the gentleness and compassion of the deity suggest feminine qualities. Thus, a child accompanies the goddess figure either in her embrace or at her side.Wearing a lavish crown of jewels illuminated by the glow of her halo, she stands atop a dragon submerged by the water gushing out of the vase she controls with her foot. The head, erect and frontal, shows the calm serenity of one who, having overcome the suffering of this world, has found peace in the lotus of the good law. Raised in the abhaya mudra the hand indicates that the faithful should have no fear but should put their trust in her. She holds a mala, rosary, in one hand and draped over her raised forearm as she assumes an elegant pose, her body clothed in exquisite silken robes of lotus decor. The feeling of serenity that emanates from this religious figure is sure to touch those who share her presence. Guanyin sculptures were often worshipped by local women who gave offerings to the goddess in exchange for her protection and guidance in domestic affairs. - (PF.2959)   « Less

The Tang Dynasty was an era of unrivalled wealth and luxury. The country was successfully reunified and the borders were expanded, pushing Chinese influence into new lands.  More »

The Tang Dynasty was an era of unrivalled wealth and luxury. The country was successfully reunified and the borders were expanded, pushing Chinese influence into new lands. Confucianism became a semi-religious instrument of the state; yet Buddhism continued to flourish, spreading into Korea and Japan. The arts reached new levels of sophistication. Poetry and literature flourished under the enlightened rulers. The Silk Road brought fortunes into China. Precious treasures were imported on the backs of camels from far away lands and bartered for Chinese silk, medicinal herbs, and pungent spices. Tang China was a multicultural empire where foreign merchants from across Central Asia and the Middle East settled in the urban centers, foremost among them the thriving capital of Chang’an (modern X’ian), a bustling cosmopolitan center of over two million inhabitants. Foreign traders lived next to native artisans and both thrived. New ideas and exotic artistic forms followed alongside. The Tang Dynasty was a cultural renaissance where many of the forms and objects we now associate with China were first created. Moreover, this period represents one of the greatest cultural outpourings in human history. This large fragment of a head was once part of a much larger sculpture of a civic official. We can assume from the stature of this work that it likely stood outside as part of the spiritual road leading up to a mausoleum. Picture a procession of monumental civic officials, carved from stone, greeting the emperor as he makes his was inside. Such processional entranceways are well known in China and occur in the architecture of other cultures and civilizations such as the Ancient Egyptians. While it might seem odd to immortalize a government bureaucrat in stone, especially on such a grand scale, when we consider the importance of such civil officials in the daily life of the empire, their significance becomes clear. With over two million inhabitants in greater Chang’an, the cosmopolitan capital of the Tang, the governance of just this city alone would have demanded an extensive network of civic servants, not to mention the numerous distant provinces of that comprised the greater Empire. In order to remove power from the hands of wealthy aristocrats and warlords, the Tang created a class of scholar officials to govern their lands, enacting the will of the Imperial Court throughout China. Rigorous examinations ensured that only the most qualified individuals were able to serve this crucial position. The official wears a tall cap with a chinstrap that marks his status. Today, this monumental fragment is a stunning testament to the wealth and luxury of the Tang Dynasty, a golden age of Chinese culture made possible through the work of such officials. - (PF.5475)   « Less

This striking bronze censer has a low compressed body, slightly everted rim, loop handles and a flat base. The underside of the base has a countersunk rectangular cartouche  More »

This striking bronze censer has a low compressed body, slightly everted rim, loop handles and a flat base. The underside of the base has a countersunk rectangular cartouche with a six-character reign mark reading ‘Da Ming Xuande nian zhi’ (‘Made in the Xuande era of the Great Ming’). The form of the censer is one of the classic types produced during the Xuande period (1426-1435) of the Ming Dynasty. In 1428, according to the document ‘Xuande yi qi tu pu’ (‘Illustrated Catalogue of the Ritual Vessels of the Xuande Period’), Emperor Xuande instructed the Ministry of Works to cast a large series of bronze vessels with copper sent as tribute by the Kingdom of Siam (Thailand). They were intended for use on the altars of the palace and beyond. It was customary to display such vessels in groups of five, a central censer, flanked by pairs of vases and candlesticks. Censers were also used in secular contexts, displayed in the studies of the literati and used to burn incense. Xuande apparently commissioned c. 20,000 vessels of 117 different types. The censers were one of the most popular forms and were widely reproduced in the later Ming and Qing eras. Known simply as ‘Xuande censers’ many of these later pieces also bore the Xuande mark. Original marks are distinguished by characters that are complete and smooth, set against a background that is the same colour and luster as the vessel itself. This piece may date to the later Ming period and is noteworthy for its fine casting and finish.   « Less

The great influence of the horse throughout the history of China cannot be underestimated. In fact, the ancient expansion of the Chinese Empire was due in large part to the  More »

The great influence of the horse throughout the history of China cannot be underestimated. In fact, the ancient expansion of the Chinese Empire was due in large part to the horse. The rapid mobility of horses allowed for quick communication between far away provinces. Likewise, the military role of horses aided in the defense of the borders from nomadic invaders as well as the conquest and submission of distant lands. The need to import stronger, faster steeds from Central Asia (as opposed to the local Mongol pony) led to the creation of the Silk Road. The importance of the horse in the history and culture of China can be viewed, in part, through the artistic legacy of this great civilization. In sculpture, painting, and literature, horses were glorified and revered. Furthermore, horses were believed to be relatives of the mythological dragon, reflecting their sacred status within society. This gorgeous brown horse is a splendid example of the T’ang Sancai glazed horse, one of the most beloved types of Chinese art. The horse is elegantly modeled and decorated with a painted orange saddle and spotted numnah and splendid green-glazed reigns and headstall, reflecting the luxurious regalia that horses were honored with. Overall, this sculpture is a testament to the revered status of the horse in Chinese culture, a love that reached new heights of expression during the T’ang Dynasty. - (H.677)   « Less