Although these is evidence that the Romans painted on portable panels, the majority of painting from the Roman era that survives today has come down to us in the form of  More »

Although these is evidence that the Romans painted on portable panels, the majority of painting from the Roman era that survives today has come down to us in the form of frescos. The interiors of Roman villas were often composed of sparsely furnished, windowless rooms. Wall paintings were used to open up and enliven these dark, dreary spaces with colorful decorative motifs and architectural elements that appeared to look out onto pastoral landscapes. The fresco technique practiced during the Classical era has been described in the histories of Vitruvius and Pliny the Elder. First, the wall was prepared by applying multiple coats of mortar (a mixture of lime and sand) followed by one to three coats of lime mixed with finely powdered marble. The colored pigments were applied directly to the plaster while the wall was still damp, forcing the artist to complete the specific area being painted before the wall dried.This gorgeous fragment attests to the remarkable skills of Roman painters, an important facet of Roman art that was relatively unknown until discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum where a plethora of perfectly preserved frescos were uncovered. While the sculptures of the Classical era are among the most recognizable works of art in the world, it is through frescos like this one that we can now say with certainty that the painters of Rome were as accomplished as their sculptor counterparts. - (X.0139)   « Less

A standard Roman military diploma consists of two bronze plaques bound together on both sides and sealed with wax by seven witnesses. The front cover contained a copy of the  More »

A standard Roman military diploma consists of two bronze plaques bound together on both sides and sealed with wax by seven witnesses. The front cover contained a copy of the complete text also repeated on the two interior leafs. The back cover contained the names of seven witnesses who sealed the diploma. These diplomas are actually copies of original bronze documents that were kept in an archive in Rome. The copies were distributed to a serviceman upon his retirement as proof of his honorable service and newly acquired citizenship (at the end of a minimum twenty-five year military service, citizenship was awarded to the soldier and wife and children). The text was repeated twice, on the outside and on the inside, to prevent fraud since the sealed interior text could not be tampered with. If a former soldier enjoying retirement on the Dalmatian coast was suspected of forging the cover of his diploma, local government officials could break the seals and verify that the interior text corresponded to the front cover without having to wait for confirmation from the archives in distant Rome. Today, Roman military diplomas are beloved by scholars because they contain of wealth of information that can be precisely dated. Through such records, it is possible to track the deployment of troops throughout the empire and to chart the rise in rank of specific individuals. Likewise, in the life of a specific soldier, we can determine where he was born, raised, what wars he fought in, and where he retired to.   « Less

Swift footed, Mercury (known to Greeks as Hermes), the messenger of Jupiter and herald to the gods, was the patron deity of travelers, gamblers, tricksters, and businessmen.  More »

Swift footed, Mercury (known to Greeks as Hermes), the messenger of Jupiter and herald to the gods, was the patron deity of travelers, gamblers, tricksters, and businessmen. To him is ascribed the introduction of deploying embassies in the capitals of foreign empires in order to broker peace through diplomatic channels instead of war. Mercury, the robber and cattle driver, the prince of thieves at the gates, the bringer of dreams, the patron of travelers, is also credited with assisting the Fates during the creation of the alphabet, securing his role as the governor of the tongue and the guide of intelligent speech. He also invented the lyre from a tortoise shell and gave this musical instrument to Apollo who, in turn, gave Mercury a caduceus, the golden staff crowned by wings and intertwined with serpents--symbol of today's medical profession. Mercury is sometimes called Argiphontes, for having killed the all-seeing Argos I who guarded Io. He is also referred to as Psychopompus in the context of his role as the guide of the souls of the deceased to the Underworld.Here, Mercury stands nude in a classic contraposto pose with his weight resting on his right leg, leaving his left leg relaxed with his knee slightly bent. A piece of drapery flows across his chest and falls along his left arm. His head is angled down and slightly to the right and a laurel wreath crowns his short curly hair. His identity is confirmed by the money sack he carries in his right hand. His left hand is open, extended forward as if ready to accept offerings. The sculptor of this work was certainly inspired by 5th Century B.C. Greek original by the great master Polykleitos. No doubt this gorgeous work of art was revered in its own time. Libations of rich wines and perfumed oils might have been placed nearby to honor the invoked deity. However, while the great pantheon of Greek and Roman gods and goddesses has faded into the realm of myth, this sculpture still stands as a stunning work of timeless beauty. Who knows, maybe this work will conjure up the spirit of Mercury, who might bless us with successful business dealings and safe travel? In our world – as in antiquity – this seems the ideal work of art for someone who charts a swift and successful course through time. - (X.0144)   « Less

Bacchus (known to the Greeks as Dionysus) was the god of the vine, of wine and mystic ecstasy. His cult was prolific throughout the Mediterranean, and may have been known as  More »

Bacchus (known to the Greeks as Dionysus) was the god of the vine, of wine and mystic ecstasy. His cult was prolific throughout the Mediterranean, and may have been known as far as India since it was believed he traveled to that distant country. His worship was manifested in tumultuous processions in which the spirits of earth and of fecundity appeared, their likenesses evoked by masks. This hollow cast bronze bust depicts Bacchus with a mantle draped around his shoulders. A wreath composed of vine leaves with clusters of grapes crowns his head; his hair parted down the middle and pulled back into a low chignon. His wide eyes are slightly recessed with deep pupils. His straight mouth with fleshy lip is closed. Are we to believe that he is slightly inebriated? Perhaps he is in a state of mystical ecstasy brought about from his consumption of sacred libations? Such a small bust may have functioned as a furniture appliqué, or may have stood by itself in a small shrine in the house of one of his followers as an emblem of personal devotion. - (X.0146)   « Less

With its exceptional condition and excellent quality, this rare bronze work is an outstanding example of Roman portraiture from the early Imperial period. The deep, slightly  More »

With its exceptional condition and excellent quality, this rare bronze work is an outstanding example of Roman portraiture from the early Imperial period. The deep, slightly mottled patina adds richness and depth to the figure, while it also draws attention to the highly skilled modeling of its surface. Each part of the piece is approached with sensitivity and sculpted with a gentle touch. The work is not only a record of appearance. The artist has portrayed a sense of the figure's character as well. Here, the serious, yet open, face conveys a sense of old fashioned values and commanding presence of portraits of the Emperor Vespasian.   « Less

Small votive plaques forged from precious metals such as this one were common to the regions of the western Black Sea coast under Roman control. Scholars believe that the  More »

Small votive plaques forged from precious metals such as this one were common to the regions of the western Black Sea coast under Roman control. Scholars believe that the images of a woman gently hammered onto the metal plaques in a technique known as repoussé likely represents the Phyrigian goddess Cybele. As Hellenistic influence began to infiltrate Asia Minor, the Anatolian cult of the mother goddess, which can be traced back to the Neolithic era, remained a vital force. Based on the late Hittite goddess Kubaba, Cybele represented the most contemporary adaptation of this ancient fertility goddess. Called the Great Mother, she was one of the few Eastern deities whose cult was absorbed into the Roman pantheon almost fully intact.Here, she is depicted in the form of a woman crowned with a kalathos, a type of tiered basket symbolic of her fertility. She wears a garment belted just below her breasts and holds her arms in front of her, revealing her open palms to the viewer. She is framed by a stylized shrine composed of two elaborate columns with volute capitals that support a triangular pediment that is decorated with a bust of the moon goddess Selene. A cymbal and a flute appear in the field on either side of the goddess, while a fish is present below. The Great Mother Goddess of Anatolian mythology was worshipped before history was first recorded. Over time, her name and image changed as her cult was adopted and adapted by the varying civilizations that at one time ruled the land of Asia Minor. Here, on this silver votive plaque, we witness this deity as she appeared to the Romans. Centuries later, this portrayal of the ancient Mother Goddess would survive in the form of the Virgin Mary, who is traditionally represented in Eastern Orthodox art forming a similar gesture. - (X.0165)   « Less

With open, high, curving bases, this pair of feline ornaments would have presumably once decorated the upper railing of an ancient chariot. The composition of each piece is  More »

With open, high, curving bases, this pair of feline ornaments would have presumably once decorated the upper railing of an ancient chariot. The composition of each piece is masterful: the body of the panther manages to fill the entire space without seeming compacted in any way, from the tip of the curved tail on one end of the fitting to the front paw resting on the vase at the edge of the other end. The vases, which appear to be amphoras with spiraling scroll handles, are flat, contrasting to the three-dimensional modeling of the panthers. The panthers stand tall, their heads held high in the air with open mouths and protruding tongues. Incised lines around the neck reproduce the texture of their furry manes, while the folds around their eyes are marvelously captured. Also impressive is the ferocious set of fangs that fill their mouths. Their large, powerful legs feature indications of the musculature and tendons and their paws feature individual toes and claws. The whole of their two bodies have been incised with a motif of dashes and circles that recreates both the textual feeling of the fur as well as the spotted pattern. A pair of undulating lines along the side of the base indicates that no decorative detail was overlooked. Nails would have been driven through the hole in the back of the fittings, opposite the tail and paws, in order to secure this ornament into place along the railing of an ancient ceremonial chariot. Although the wooden frame of this quadriga has longs since deteriorated, we can still imagine the luxurious nature of such a ceremonial vehicle based the beauty on the few decorative elements that have survived. - (X.0186)   « Less

This marvelous Roman period ribbon-glass flask is a delightful example of a style that was extremely popular in the early principate. While glassmaking had existed for two  More »

This marvelous Roman period ribbon-glass flask is a delightful example of a style that was extremely popular in the early principate. While glassmaking had existed for two millennia prior to the Romans, having been pioneered by other cultures of the Mediterranean, it was not until the late Roman Republic that glassblowing was discovered as a method of mass-producing glass, and would stand as Rome’s great contribution to the art. Glass production flourished under the reign of Augustus, Rome’s first emperor, the method of glassblowing having been brought to Italy in this period. Originally, glass was a luxury item for the wealthy and this drove the industry to perfect more efficient and less expensive forms of mass-production. Glass blowing helped produce these conditions. The author Strabo wrote that by his time, a person could buy a glass cup for the cost of a copper coin. Nevertheless, there was always a demand for high quality glass and items like the present flask exemplified the masterful techniques of the Romans in which a multitude of colors could be incorporated in a blown vessel.This flask, with its bulbous base and delicate curves, leading to a stoutly flared lip, displays a pastiche of blues, purples and violets interspersed with white, being reminiscent of glazed fruit preserves and confectionaries. What sweet wines may have graced the interior of this vessel, purchased by a paterfamilias, perhaps as a gift for the woman of the house, or brought as a gift by honored guests? The dedication and skill of the craftsmen that blew this glass vessel are contained in the frozen, flowing rivers of color that comprise its walls and dazzle the eyes of the modern viewer, in much the same way that they must have bedazzled the Roman viewers as well. - (X.0191)   « Less

Decorative roundels like this marvelous bronze example are some of the more mysterious objects in the whole of Roman art. While we know they served as adornments, the objects  More »

Decorative roundels like this marvelous bronze example are some of the more mysterious objects in the whole of Roman art. While we know they served as adornments, the objects they once embellished, ranging from pieces of furniture to chariots, were assembled from less durable materials and have long since disappeared, leaving behind these decorations. The only clue we have to their placement is the series of small round holes and the larger square hole that penetrate the flat rim. It is likely that a large nail would have been driven into the roundel in order to secure it in place on the object it once adorned, be it chest or chair. Nails may have been driven into the smaller holes as added support. However, it is also possible that a wooden frame may have been nailed into place using these holes. The advantages of this theory are twofold: the frame would have both covered the unattractive nail in the top center and served visually as a transition between the bronze of the roundel and the wood of the object to which it was attached.   « Less

Sheep were a prized commodity during the Roman era, not just for their meat and milk, but also for their wool. Wool was not used by the ancient Romans just for making  More »

Sheep were a prized commodity during the Roman era, not just for their meat and milk, but also for their wool. Wool was not used by the ancient Romans just for making textiles, clothes, and carpets; however, they also extracted dirt and oils similar to lanolin from the wool in order to make cosmetic face creams. Sheep were raised throughout the Roman Empire, from modern England to Germany and Belgium. This bronze sculpture is a masterpiece of naturalism. The animal is instantly recognizable and treated with a level of attention generally reserved for imperial portraits. She stands on a small rectangular base and has her head turned towards her right, as if some unseen shepherd is beckoning her. Her facial features have been clearly indicated with delicately incised lines, including her eyes, mouth, and nostrils. The sculptor has also successfully rendered the thick texture of the wooly coat, with individual tufts of wool indicated by incised lines. This sculpture captures both the physique and the personality of this animal that played an essential role in the lives of the Ancient Romans. - (X.0201)   « Less