The Indus Valley civilization was rediscovered in 1920-21 when engraved seals were unearthed in the Punjab province of Pakistan at a site called Harappa, a name which is often used to describe the civilization as a whole. Subsequent excavations at Harappa revealed the size and complexity of this ancient city. Other sites were unearthed as well along the banks of the Indus River, including the equally large city of Mohenjodaro. Through archaeological and historical research, we can now say for certain that a highly developed urban civilization flourished in the Indian subcontinent over five thousand years ago. Though the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, the numerous seals, statuary, and pottery discovered during excavations, not to mention the urban ruins, have enabled scholars to construct a reasonably plausible account of the Indus Valley civilization.Some kind of centralized state, and certainly fairly extensive town planning, is suggested by the layout of the great cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The same kind of burnt brick appears to have been used in the construction of buildings in cities that were several hundred miles apart. The weights and measures also show a very considerable regularity, suggesting that these disparate cities spread out across a vast desert shared a common culture. The Indus Valley people domesticated animals, and harvested various crops, such as cotton, sesame, peas, barley, and cotton. Indus Valley seals have been excavated in far away cities such as Sumer, suggesting that a wealthy merchant class existed, engaged in extensive trading throughout the subcontinent and the Near East.Considering the size of this civilization, it is puzzling that no monumental art remains, glorifying the names of the powerful rulers or wealthy merchants who could have afforded to construct such memorials. Instead, we find an emphasis on small, elegant art and sophisticated craft technology. Three-dimensional representations of living beings in the Harappan world are confined to, with a few exceptions, small terracotta figurings. Ranging in size from a few inches to a foot in height, the anthropomorphic and animal terracotta figurines from Harappa and other Indus Civilization sites offer a rich reflection of Harappan life in the Bronze Age. Traditionally, the terracotta figurines have been described as toys. Other objects such as carts, wheels, and cots discovered alongside the figurines has only reinforced this notion. However, whether these figures were idols meant to be worshipped or merely charming representations of daily life meant to entertain children remains debatable.Other than the archaeological ruins of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, these seals provide the most detailed clues about the character of the Indus Valley people. Bulls and elephants appear on these seals, but the horned bull, most scholars agree, should not be taken to be congruent with Nandi, for the horned bull appears in numerous Central Asian figures as well. The women portrayed on the seals are shown with elaborate coiffures, sporting heavy jewelry, suggesting that the Indus Valley people were an urbane people with cultivated tastes and a refined aesthetic sensibility. A few thousand seals have been discovered in Indus Valley cities, showing some 400 pictographs: too few in number for the language to have been ideographic, and too many for the language to have been phonetic.The Zebu bull, an ox with a prominent hump that had been domesticated in the east since the earliest days of history,represents power, strength and nobility. In particular, the humped bull has been a prominent theme in the pottery and decorative arts of the Indus Valley civilization. The Zebu bull, the leader of the herd, the protector and procreator of the species, likely symbolizes a powerful clan or top official from Harappa or Mohenjodaro. Valued for its milk, its flesh and its hide, the bull was considered to be one of the sacrificial offerings most pleasing to the gods. A sculpture like this one may have once stood in an ancient temple as a substitute for the real creature. This particular terracotta sculpture of a bull bears a strong resemblance to similar representations of Zebu bulls from the ancient Near East. Perhaps these ancient cultures once shared similar beliefs. The head of the bull is emphasized; the horns are wide and prominent. The creatures legs are thick and sturdy. The pointed hump emerges from the back. Dashed lines created by lightly poking the wet clay with a stylus divide the bull’s body and head into various segments. For a discussion on zoomorphic figurines see: J-F. Jarrige, Les Cites Oubliees de l'Indus, Guimet Museum, 1988. - (LO.557)

Antiquities
Ancient Near East